Hobfòll (1989) believed that stress is a major factor which not only affects people's lives, but also has an impact on their mental and physical health. The degree of stress experienced depends on how much of a stake a person has in the outcome of the event: if there is no relevance to the person, and no threat, there will be no stress if their stake is high, the encounter will pose a threat or challenge, triggering a stress reaction (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). This is based on the cognitive-relational theory of stress which emphasises that the person-environment interaction is continuous and reciprocal in nature (Lazarus & Folkman, 1987). Psychological stress is the emotional response experienced when an environmental stimuli or event could endanger well-being, is perceived as exceeding a person's resources (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) and can be defined by a stimulus-response relationship. This chapter discusses psychological stress as opposed to physical or mechanical stress. The level of stress experienced in the form of thoughts, feelings, emotions and behaviours, as a result of external stressors, depends on appraisals of the situation which involves a judgement about whether internal or external demands exceed resources and ability to cope when demands exceed resources (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). The Transactional Model of Stress and Coping Theory is a framework which emphasizes appraisal to evaluate harm, threat and challenges, which results in the process of coping with stressful events (Lazaurus, 1966 Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Further investigation followed, with Hans Selye in 1936 describing a set of bodily defences against noxious stimuli and called this the General Adaption Syndrome (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984), noting that stress was the physiological reactions and processes resulting from some demand or stimuli. In 1932, Walter Cannon, observed that stress seemed to be related to an internal disturbance of homeostasis, possibly due to lack of oxygen, cold, low blood pressure or such (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984). Stress is still considered to be the internal force or reaction resulting from any form of harmful stimuli. In the late 17th century, stress, according to the study of physical (mechanical) sciences of the day, was used to describe the relationship between internal forces and the external force, or load (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Cognitive behaviour therapies and approaches enable individuals to identify and become aware of thoughts and feelings that lead to inadequate coping, and learn new ways to problem solve and cope. Personality traits, depressive symptomology and social support are some factors which influence coping skills and abilities. Coping follows from this appraisal of threat and can influence either a change in the person-environment relationship or the level of emotional distress experienced. Cognitive appraisal consists of primary appraisal (to assess the harm or threat the situation may pose) and secondary appraisal (which evaluates what can be done and the individual's ability to manage and cope with it). The model evaluates how major life events and daily hassles impact on emotions with the emphasis on cognitive appraisal and coping with stress. He continued research into this field, publishing numerous books and research papers, some on his own, and some in collaboration with other scientists, especially Dr Susan Folkman. In 1966, Dr Richard Lazarus first wrote about his transactional theory of stress and coping. 6.2 Factors influencing coping skills and abilities.5.3 How does cognitive appraisal assist with stress?.4.3 Personal factors influencing the stress experience.
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